Taxation Law and Practice Policy

Question: Talk about the Taxation Law and Practice Policy. Answer: Presentation: The citizen was occupied with the matter of giving moving exercises in lieu of charges paid ahead of time. The development charges paid by the understudies were set under tension record by the citizen. The citizen portrayed this anticipation account as Unearned store under-trained exercises account. The citizen followed the act of moving the development expenses got from advance record to income account subsequent to giving the move classes to the understudies. There was an understanding between the citizen and the understudies that advance expenses paid to the citizen won't be discounted. By and by, the citizen discounted the development charges got from the understudies if not all the classes are given to the understudies (Long et al., 2016). The citizen didn't treat the prepaid education costs got from the understudy as pay determined. The expenses were possibly remembered for the assessable salary when the citizen gave the tution. Along these lines, while computing the assessable pay just expense of the moving exercises that has been given during the salary year is incorporated by the citizen (Berger, 2016). The magistrate on receipt premise determined the assessable salary of the citizen. The expenses that were gotten ahead of time were remembered for the assessable salary of the citizen in the time of receipt and not in the year, the administration was really given according to area 25(1) of ITA Act 1936. The issue under the steady gaze of the court was to decide if the prepaid charges got ought to be remembered for the assessable pay of the citizen in the year the moving classes are given or in the year, the prepaid expenses are gotten (Brown, 2016). The citizen determined the salary in the year the moving classes are given and not in the year the prepaid expenses were gotten was held by the high court for this situation. In the event that the charges are gotten ahead of time, at that point the general guideline is that prepaid expenses got ought not be considered as pay and ought not be remembered for the assessable pay for the duty reason (Tran, 2015). The understudy and the citizen had an understanding that the charges that were paid ahead of time by the understudy won't be discounted. When all is said in done, practice the citizen discounted the expenses of understudies that didn't finish the exercises. In this manner, there exists a likelihood that the prepaid charges will be discounted to the understudies so it was additionally held by the court that such receipt of advance expenses couldn't be remembered for the assessable pay of the citizen. The pay determined during the pay year ought to be remembered for the assessable salary of the citizen according to area 6-5 of the personal expense appraisal act 1997. It is considered as salary inferred if the sum is gotten by the citizen or any one sake of the citizen according to area 6-5(4) of ITA Act 1997. There are two strategies for perceiving salary with the end goal of duty this are income technique and receipts strategy. The strategy that properly mirrors the salary of the citizen in the pay year ought to be decided for deciding pay for charge reason. The Para 19 of the Taxation Rule 98/1 expresses that according to general guideline the receipt technique is viewed as fitting to decide pay got from non business salary, pay got from work and pay got from venture (Dunne et al., 2014). If there should be an occurrence of procuring technique, the general guideline is that this strategy is viewed as proper if the pay is gotten from the matter of exchanging and assembling accord ing to Para 20 of the Taxation Ruling 98/1. By and large with the end goal of expense, the acquiring technique is considered as the most proper strategy for deciding salary. For this situation, the RIP Pty Ltd is occupied with the matter of offering types of assistance identified with memorial services. The organization during the salary year 30 June 2016 made a benefit of $2.45 million. The fundamental income of the organization was created from giving memorial service and other subordinate administrations. The organization gathered the expenses from the clients under various choices this are given underneath: Expenses are gotten from client by giving a receipt of net 30 days. Charges are gotten from outer insurance agencies by giving a net 30 days receipt. Charges are likewise gotten from financing organization RIP Finance ltd that under portion installment plan gives credit to the clients. Charges are likewise gotten from the commitment made by the clients under simple tentative arrangement. According to the general principle, the winning technique for the most part fittingly mirrors the business pay determined during the year. The salary ought to be quickly perceived by RIP in light of the fact that the organization determines pay when administration is given. The organization raises a 30 days receipt in the wake of offering the types of assistance as indicated by the built up techniques (Saad Udin, 2016). The organization ought not hold up until it get its installment for perceiving pay in light of the fact that according to acquiring technique the salary is determined as the administration that is required to be given has been given. Accordingly, the organization ought to perceive income after the administration is given and the receipt is raised. The organization runs a plan of simple tentative arrangement and under that plan organization gets charges ahead of time portions and consents to give the memorial service sometime in the future in future. This charges are gotten from the clients ahead of time are non refundable. On the off chance that a client neglects to finish all the portion installment that are require under the arrangement then the charges are relinquished by the organization. These relinquished expenses are moved to relinquished installment account. The organization doesn't have any obligation of offering support to those individuals for whose charges has been relinquished so this relinquished sums ought to be promptly perceived as income. In view of the above investigation it very well may be reasoned that pay is inferred as the burial service administrations is given by the RIP Pty Ltd. The high court on account of Arthur Murray expressed that in the year the administration is given the citizen infer salary in that equivalent year. The general guideline is that the development expenses got is perceived as salary in the year the administration is really given. The RIP Pty Ltd in simple likely arrangement consents to give burial service in future and gets advance expenses in portions. The development expenses got by the organization under the plan are treated as salary in the year the development is gotten. The conditions of this case and that of the instance of Arthur Murray is practically comparative so the standards of bookkeeping treatment built up under that case is relevant for the treatment of advance expenses got under the simple tentative arrangement (Dunne et al., 2015). Based on the standard set up on account of Arthur Murray the development charges got under the simple tentative arrangement ought not be incorporated as salary in the year the development is gotten yet it ought to be perceived in income in the year the burial service are really given. The conventional salaries according to segment 6-5 of the ITA Act 1997 can be accounted under two strategies with the end goal of duty according to Taxation Ruling 98/1. The two strategies for income as referenced in Taxation administering 98/1 are acquiring strategy and receipt technique. On the off chance that the pay is inferred in the year, the genuine or valuable salary is gotten then this strategy for perceiving income is known as receipt technique. The receipt technique is likewise generally known as money got premise or money premise. It is likewise given in area 6-5(4) of the ITA Act 1997 that it will be considered as pay inferred in spite of the fact that it isn't gotten by the citizen however somebody self in the interest of the citizen (Bray, 2014). There is another strategy for deciding salary with the end goal of assessment that is winning technique which is otherwise called money and credit strategy or gathering technique. Under this technique, it is considered as sala ry determined when the pay is earned and an obligation that is recoverable under the law is made. After the assignment that is required to be performed under the understanding is performed then the citizen can lawfully request the sum this is known as recoverable obligation. The conversation above features that the citizen and the official has two strategies for representing the reason for charge this are acquiring strategy and receipt technique. The strategy that properly mirrors the salary inferred during the year ought to be picked for deciding pay with the end goal of expense. The RIP Pty Ltd under simple likely arrangement gets charges ahead of time portions from the clients. The organization for the most part relinquishes the expenses got if the client neglects to pay all the necessary portions. The expenses that are relinquished are moved to a different record called relinquished installment account. The organization is no obligated to give the memorial service benefits under simple tentative arrangement in light of the fact that the client has neglected to pay all the portions that are required to be paid under this arrangement (Dunne et al., 2016). The present situation of the given case is that the organization has no risk to offer types of assistance and the expenses that are relinquished are non-refundable so it is encouraged to the organization that the relinquished record equalization ought to be perceived as pay. In this manner the equalization of $16200.00 ought to be treated as pay. As expressed in the segment 70-10 in the ITA Act 1997, the exchanging stock is considered as any type of ware which has been considered with the end goal of offer, trade or production reason in the customary line of the business. For the comprehension of the idea of the stock and characterizing, the significant worries in the normal course of the business. It is fundamental, for a business to consider the various kinds of the exchanging stock, things that must be remembered for the monetary, understanding or the advantages identified with capital addition charge, according to the segment 70-25 expressed in the ITA Act 1997. It had been expressed that the sum brought about ought not be educate regarding capita, in nature. In the given case it has been demonstrated that RIP has purchased ca

Case 9-B Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Case 9-B - Assignment Example The National Enquirer is known as a newspaper concentrating on VIP tattle, news and wrongdoing stories. In the event that an up-and-comer who is standing by to be talked with peruses the National Enquirer rather than the organization yearly report, it uncovers the inclination of the possibility for perusing materials which are unverified and without esteem. In the event that an organization yearly report is perused, rather, the enrollment specialists would measure that the up-and-comer is intrigued to find out about the organization which he/she intends to serve. Driving propensities uncover a part of one’s character, particularly as far as taking care of startling circumstances. At the point when an individual drives, his brain naturally moves to routinary conduct and can be viewed as a huge sign of one’s employment execution. For the situation, the applicant lost his temper when his vehicle was hit by another vehicle in spite of it being his shortcoming. It uncovered his poor street behavior at first and conceivable powerlessness to deal with clashes and troublesome circumstances at work. These selection representatives underscore the need to remain concentrated on the enlistment procedure by putting everything else out of one’s brain. A definitive goal of enlistment is â€Å"to find qualified representatives who fit well into the way of life of the organization† (DuBrin, 2008, 303). In this manner, graduates looking for section level specialized and expert occupations must be at their best during the meeting procedure and be set up to tune in and react,

Application Processing Update COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

Application Processing Update COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog I thought I would provide a status update on our processing of applications and I would like to start by saying that the Admissions Committee has not started meeting yet.   In short, we have not started reviewing applications for admission, we are still working very hard on reviewing applications for completion. So here is where we stand . . . We have printed all of the applications submitted.   While this may sound strange to announce, it is a feat in the sense that all told applications probably represent close to 80,000 printed pages of information.   Printing 80,000 pages and then looking at each one to ensure readability and completion takes us a few weeks.   Do remember that just because you submitted a document or information online does not mean it will automatically be tracked as received. This is normal and full details on tracking were covered in this post (please review the post to familiarize yourself with how we track applications). We have manually reviewed approximately 70% of the application submitted.   This means we have not even looked at 30% of the applications we have printed.   They are waiting patiently in large piles for us to review.   An application that has not been looked at is at no disadvantage in the admission consideration process.   We will start to assign files to reading teams soon and not all reading teams start reading at the same time some start in January however some do not start until February. Thus we still have a few weeks before some readers will start reading which gives us time to review applications for completion. I estimate that when we do complete our review of all printed applications, approximately 35% will still be labeled incomplete which is where the matching process begins.   After we complete our first sweep through applications submitted and printed we will then go back and look to match documents that were not submitted on the application site.   The matching process takes us more time, but again, files completed a little later than others are at no disadvantage. As we complete our review if we feel we need any additional information we will send out email messages.   Just because an application does not read complete on the application site does not mean we do not already have everything we need it likely means that we just have not had the opportunity yet to view your application or search for necessary documents that were submitted and filed to await matching. So, if you have not received a completion email from us at this point in time do not let it be a point of concern.   We have at least 8-10 more business days of work ahead of us in terms of certifying files as complete.

Comparing the Movies Wall Street and Boiler Room Essay

Comparing the Movies Wall Street and Boiler Room Profit, profit and more profit - the golden pillars of capitalism. In the movies Wall Street and Boiler Room this is the ideology that the characters uphold. While, there are many variances in the two movies, the basic aim of both lead characters i.e. Gordan Gekko (Wall Street) and Seth Davis (Boiler Room) is to make money. Both men are stockbrokers who deal in high finance in the exclusive world of Wall Street. However, with both movies are set in different decades the way they go about doing so differs. Wall Street is set in the roaring eighties - a decade that has become synonymous with greed, the so-called era of plenty. With an economy just recovering from recession,†¦show more content†¦Boiler Room on the other hand, is in set in the more familiar nineties. Overall, this decade was one of prosperity, hard work and a significant rise in the standards of living for people all over the USA. The attitude of the decade seemed to be work hard, play hard - and all the rest will follow. Wealth was seen as something that was easily accessible to all those who wanted it - it was simply a matter of getting it. There is easy money to be made in start-ups and dot coms. Young people can be millionaires before they even hit their twenties. People like Sabeer Bhatia of Hotmail fame have set the standards. Both movies however, are undeniably focused on capitalism and the making, controlling and of course spending of money. As we see in both movies, it is made by sometimes unlawful means, and controlled by these same unethical people. The occurrence of these immense amounts of wealth is advertised by the spending of the main characters in the films. Expensive restaurants, expensive hotels, expensive homes, expensive paintings, state of the art technology (think Gordan Gekkos cool cellular phone - which at that time was perhaps the height of technology!), expensive suits and so on - are symbols of this wealth. In the movie Wall Street, we also see a little bit of control exercised over the blatant capitalism. This is in the form of tradeShow MoreRelatedStrategic Marketing Management337596 Words   |  1351 Pagesyear it was up to 58 per cent. The renaissance in cinema-going during the 1990s, driven by British-made hits such as Four Weddings and a Funeral and Trainspotting, as well as improved cinema complexes, showed up in an increase in women going to the movies – 57 per cent against just 40 per cent a decade earlier. Source: Marketing, 18 May 2000, p. 35. The net effect of changes such as these has been significant, and is continuing to prove so, with the marketing strategies of nearly all companies being

Causes of 2003 Us Iraq War - 3883 Words

Liberalism and Hegemonic Stability Theory As Causes for the 2003 US-Iraq War Many factors went into the decision of United States leaders to enter into war with Iraq in 2003. These reasons can be related to various classical and modern theories on the causes of war between states. Though there are several stances and viewpoints on the righteousness or legality of the war on Iraq, an objective eye will notice that the real factors for going to war are neither grounded in righteousness nor law. They involve the maintenance of peace and power for those in control, in this case, the United States. The theories of Liberalism and Hegemonic Stability Theory both sufficiently account for the United States main motivations for entering war†¦show more content†¦Should the liberal state accomplish its goal of helping to establish a liberal state in the foreign country then it will be one condition closer to establishing a state of perpetual peace with that state from that point on. The tensions that exist between liberal and n on-liberal states comes from the idea that autocratic non-republican states are much more likely to go to war over reasons that would not spur a liberal state towards the same ends. Doyle states in his 1986 essay, Liberalism and World Politics, Liberal states have been attacked and threatened by non-liberal states that do not exercise any special restraint in their dealings with the liberal states. Authoritarian rulers both stimulate and respond to an international political environment in which conflicts of prestige, interest, and pure fear of what other states might do all lead states toward war, [Doyle 1986, 296]. Doyle explains that the fears and egos of non-liberal rulers can easily lead them towards war. These same fears and egos can be checked by a liberal republican state structure. 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A rough background on Aquinas Free Essays

Acquiring the famous reputation as the â€Å"angelic teacher† among the rest of the medieval philosophers because of his overwhelmingly influential and prominent struggle in brilliantly standing on guard the Christian theology during his time which was saw one of the heights of the attacks on Christianity, Thomas Aquinas made use of human reason in resolving the criticisms that beset the Christian Church. Resorting to human rationality and argumentation in providing a substantial justification for the Christian doctrines that meddled specifically on the existence of God symbolized a staunch deviation from the tradition that preoccupied the minds of thinkers during the medieval period. His efforts at utilizing the Aristotelian concepts on metaphysics and epistemology alongside with reason roughly highlights his firm belief that even with the sufficiency of simple faith in establishing religious principles and the very existence of God the role of rational thinking in the strictest sense of the word can all the more fairly demonstrate the basic principles of the Christian faith. We will write a custom essay sample on A rough background on Aquinas or any similar topic only for you Order Now One of the most prominent arguments Aquinas proposed is his Five Ways to prove God’s existence. Although Aquinas’ attempt at proving the existence of God has startling parallels to that of Anselm’s Ontological Argument, the former claims that the argument of the latter thinker is unacceptable for the reason that man cannot explicitly demonstrate the existence of God whose nature is beyond the immediate knowledge of man through the straightest means (Oppy). Utilizing what seems to be a sprouting method of his time, Aquinas attempts at filling the structure of the Christian faith by embracing the field of rationality along with faith as the backdrop of his arguments. The Five Ways First of the arguments raised by Aquinas is the argument for The Unmoved Mover. At the center of this argument is the premise that no object moves without a mover, or that all objects move because of a mover in the sense that the leaves of the trees rustle because they are moved by the wind; that the balls in the billiard table collide with other balls or move around the table because of the force delivered through the cue stick. A hundred other more examples can be provided. Nevertheless the very essence of all these illustrations is that no object moves without a mover. Apparently, all the examples eventually lead to an infinite regress where no end can be perceived at first. However, Aquinas tells us that this is not really an infinite regress for there has to be the presence of a first mover which initiated the series of â€Å"movements†. At this point, Aquinas proceeds to remove the infinite regress by arguing that the first mover is God. In a seemingly parallel argument, Aquinas’ second argument rests heavily on cause and effect relation. That is, nothing is caused by itself. In other words, each and every effect ultimately boils down to a certain cause, or that it is of necessity that every effect for it to be an effect in the strictest sense has to be caused by something right at the onset of it being an effect. Again, it might be observed that a line of argument leads to an infinite regress. However, it is not the case for an ultimate cause above anything else has to be responsible for the chain of causes and effects. For that matter, Aquinas resolves the regress by arguing that the first cause is God. This is the uncaused cause argument. The third way offered by Aquinas in primarily proving the existence of God is the cosmological argument. At the core of this argument is the reference to time wherein material objects have not yet come into physical existence. All the objects that we may know today are virtually inexistent at such point in time. However, Aquinas goes on to argue that since all material objects already exist, there ought to be or have been something immaterial or non-physical which brought these objects into physical existence. In essence, Aquinas claims that God is the non-physical entity which brought about the material existence of these objects. Another argument which Aquinas tries to raise is the argument from degree. This argument apparently focuses its premises on certain variations of comparisons between qualities among men and other objects thereby providing a sort of background for yet another claim that all objects in the world, in their numerous manifestations, greatly differ and outweigh any traceable similarity that may hold them together. Thus, individuals may greatly differ in virtues, with one being an altruist and the rest vicious criminals aimed at furthering their personal ends. Nevertheless, even if people vary in these aspects, the contrast between them can only be achieved if we note of a certain referential point for all the degrees of comparison. The reference, then, should be one which is imminently a perfect maximum and that this maximum cannot possibly rest among men themselves. Hence, God is the perfect standard for all comparisons and is the ultimate reference. Lastly, Aquinas raises the teleological argument which is essentially the argument that seeks to prove the existence of God using the perceived design of the objects in the world. If we are to look upon the structure of the things we may either directly or indirectly perceive in the world, it will eventually dawn upon our thoughts that everything has been designed in such and such ways, serving various purposes that are derived from the very configuration of things. Similarly, it can be inferred from such premise that, since everything is so designed accordingly, there ought to be a designer of all these things which is a necessity which follows from the given observation on the design of things. The designer, as Aquinas argues, is God. Aquinas and human knowledge: faith and reason For Aquinas, knowledge is the comprehension of the supreme principles of being which define the very inseparable essences of the ultimate understanding of man—that of the sophia and phronesis. While the former is very much concerned with the individual’s intellectual capacity to exercise speculative thinking or understanding, the latter is primarily concerned with the aligning of the individual’s life in line with its fitting end through the role of practical wisdom. These two are inherently mutual in conception and are basically brought together in man’s attempt at arriving at the knowledge of everything. Moreover, this attempt of man in obtaining knowledge requires the aid of the Divine in such a way â€Å"that the intellect may be moved by God to its act.† Nevertheless Aquinas maintains that man by himself alone has the intrinsic and innate ability to grasp the knowledge of many things even without the special divine revelation. More specifically, natural revelation— ­revelations obtained through reason—is the truth which, due to man’s inherent human nature, is made accessible to each and every man. On the other hand, supernatural revelation allows man to comprehend the knowledge on the details of the existence and attributes of God requiring not merely reason but also faith. It should be noted that Aquinas is not entirely disproving the role of reason in arriving at the comprehension of things. Quite on the contrary, Aquinas strongly argues for the primal role of reason in arriving at knowledge. Nevertheless, even if he ascribes a premium weight on the significance of rationality, he qualifies this claim by stating that faith still holds central importance, specifically in acquiring knowledge of the existence of God and several other religious matters. It appears quite obvious, then, that the philosophy of Aquinas in addressing the inquiry on human knowledge of the world cannot be entirely separated from a religious perspective. In explaining the nature of man’s knowledge and how one is able to grasp an understanding of the universe, Aquinas reinforces his arguments at the bottom by infusing a religious strand in the heaps of his epistemological and metaphysical inquiry. Aquinas on Aristotle The philosophy of Aquinas, in its very focal point, is seen to be heavily tainted with the philosophy of Aristotle. Much of this claim, for one reason, rests on the historical perspective wherein several of the writings on the philosophy of Aristotle eventually reached the shores of Europe during the time of the Crusades. The ancient texts were then a part of French as well as Italian universities and institutions of education around the middle part of the thirteenth century. Like Aristotle, Aquinas himself agrees and proposes the claim that man is in fact a rational animal wherein man is able to grasp an understanding of the world and to arrive at knowledge of the Divine through this reason. Though man is an entity imbued with reason, man can merely arrive at such a comprehension of the universe through empirical means. That is, man is capable of grasping knowledge of the world through his sensory experience. As Thomas Aquinas states, â€Å"whatever is known is known in the manner in which man can know it.† Mortimer Adler argues that for the most part, Aquinas and Aristotle agree on several points. First, they both agree that the form of the state of affairs of material composites, which can be made known, must be received by the knower with the form detached from the corporeal substance. Consequently, by possessing the power to acquire such forms in such a way grants the idea that the knower is â€Å"potentially a knower† and is actualized when the knower receives these forms. Among other similarities in the ideas that exist between Aquinas and Aristotle, both in general put centrality on the rationality of man and the role of experience or sensory perception in acquiring or knowing objects. Owing much of the philosophical content of Aquinas’ ideas from Aristotle, the former has a strong belief that reason and human experience can lead man to realizing and understanding the universe and, consequently, the existence of God. And at the time where philosophy is closely knitted to religious matters, Aquinas sought to further reinforce his arguments by injecting Aristotelian philosophy for rationality during the medieval times was one of the factors that seek to explain the universe from a point of view detached from any religious ascription. Thus, Aquinas appears to have ‘Christianized Aristotle’ in the sense that the former made much use of the latter’s philosophy in a context slanted towards religion. (Jenkins) On theoretical knowledge Aquinas conceived of theoretical knowledge as something which is the result of human rationality juxtaposed with sensory observation. That is, one can arrive at theoretical knowledge primarily through an observation of one’s world and arrive at a logical structure and correlation of these things through the functioning of reason. Though Aquinas may direct us to the premise that this rationality of man is imbued to all men by God, nevertheless this same rationality alongside with sensory perception addresses the question on how men are able to satisfy his inquiries on matters which are at first unknown to him. For example, one may acquire the theoretical knowledge on the how the tides of the oceans rise and fall through visual perception first and foremost which later on proceeds with the functioning of reason in attaching causal relations to the observed phenomenon. A similar view can also be held towards volcanic activity, rise and fall of economic activity, and many others. Bibliography Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. Houghton Mifflin, 2006. Gaarder, Jostein. Sophie’s World. Reissue ed: Berkley, 1996. Jenkins, John I. â€Å"Intellectus Principorum.†Ã‚   Knowledge and Faith in Thomas Aquinas. Cambridge University Press, 2004. 101-61. Oppy, Graham. â€Å"Some Historical Considerations.†Ã‚   Ontological Arguments and Belief in God. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996. 4-46.       How to cite A rough background on Aquinas, Essay examples

Pornography Essays - Anti-pornography Feminism, Pornography Law

Pornography Suppose one accepts MacKinnon and Dworkin's suggested statutory definition of pornography. How does one who generally accepts MacKinnon and Dworkin's views on the pervasively harmful effect of pornography, and who accepts a need for legal redress of the harms perpetrated by pornography, deal with pornographic material? The ordinance proposed by MacKinnon and Dworkin would deal with such material by enacting legislation which gives people adversely affected by the works, which clearly fit their definition of pornography, a cause of action against the producers, vendors, exhibitors or distributors for "trafficking", or for an assault "directly caused by the specific work. I do not think liberals, or others for that matter, should have much problem with the clause dealing with assault, since a causal connection to specific works is demanded by it. However, s. 3.2(iii) which deals with trafficking would be very problematic for liberals and legal conservatives because it creates a cause of action for a person contrary to the traditional conception of a rights holder's cause of action. This subsection reads: Any woman has a claim hereunder as a woman acting against the subordination of women. Any man, child or transsexual who alleges injury by pornography in the way women are injured by it also has a claim. [emphasis added] My goal in this paper is to suggest that a slight modification to this subsection of the ordinance would make it very difficult for liberals and legal conservatives to object to it. This modification would restrict the cause of action to the same persons as the other sections of the ordinance, namely, the particular victim of the specified injury. I shall argue that such a modification would largely cohere with the conception of harm already at work in Ontario law, would afford only a minor reduction in the potential efficacy of such legislation in curbing the harm of pornography, and would offer to empower the feminist camp which is behind such an ordinance with a mechanism for social and political change if a sufficiently organized feminist "vanguard" took hold of the opportunity to empower women. Adrian Howe argues that the concept of social injury which may be suggested by the ordinance recognizes the differential harm felt by women from pornography. Howe suggests this social notion of harm may be a necessary feature of any successful law reform which is to address the huge social problem of male domination and female oppression. The liberal notion of an individuated human right fails to capture, for MacKinnon and Howe, "the specificity of the harm to women." Thus, an ordinance which did not create a cause of action "for women as women" would fail to address the root of the social problem of which pornography is a manifestation. This conception of social harm, and thus subsection 3.2(iii), may offend liberals or legal conservatives in two ways. First, the notion of non-individuated harm is antithetical to the liberal conception of a rights holder claiming a cause of action. Fundamental to a liberal conception of harm is the notion of the individual who is autonomous, separate and fundamentally worthy of respect. Rawls and Kant exemplify this view in their analyses when they posit the undifferentiated self, free of any particular qualities save that of being an agent worthy of a fundamental, inviolable respect. This notion of the individual worthy of equal concern and respect in the eyes of the state permeates liberal conceptions of rights. It is also a fundamental, if not exclusive, tenet of the common law of torts: In tort litigation, the courts must decide whether to shift the loss suffered by one person, the plaintiff, to the shoulders of another person [emphasis added]. Clearly, on its face this conception of harm precludes the notion of a harm suffered collectively which cannot be delineated individually. While class actions are possible, and claims may be made on behalf of groups such as company shareholders, this is only by virtue of the fact that a legally recognized individual has suffered an identifiable particular harm. Thus, the conventional liberal notion of harm is radically distinct from that outlined by Howe and MacKinnon. Since on the liberal conception rights holders are autonomous, individual selves who are essentially distinct, harm to one is distinct from harm to another. It may be that a liberal conception of a rights holder simply renders the concept of a social harm, and thus a cause of action "for women as women" incoherent. I do not wish to discuss whether it is possible to develop a complete liberal notion of social harm. It is sufficient to note